The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and the development of Critical Thinking (CT) in university students of History and Psychology at a public university in Peru. A quantitative, non-experimental, and correlational approach was adopted. The sample consisted of 70 students enrolled in the third academic cycle of the Psychology and History programs at a Peruvian public university. Data were collected through a validated questionnaire that measured both variables, yielding Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients above 0.93. Statistical analysis included descriptive techniques and Spearman’s correlation tests. The results showed a high proportion of participants with elevated levels in both PBL (54.3%) and CT (58.6%). A positive and significant correlation was also identified between the two variables (ρ = 0.803; p < 0.001). This relationship was particularly strong in the dimensions of information analysis (ρ = 0.823) and inference of implications (ρ = 0.761), and moderately significant in position argumentation (ρ = 0.675). It was concluded that the PBL approach significantly influences the strengthening of critical thinking by promoting analytical, inferential, and argumentative skills in students. These findings reinforce the need to integrate active methodologies into Peruvian higher education to support more reflective and meaningful learning, and highlight the transformative role of the teacher as a mediator in the critical construction of knowledge.

Keywords: Problem-Based Learning, Critical Thinking, Higher Education, Cognitive Skills, Active Methodologies, Holistic Education.

Uno One of the central purposes of university education is the comprehensive development of individuals through the promotion of understanding, intellectual curiosity, and the development of critical thinking (CT) (Delors, 1996), while also fostering independent critical thinking. This need remains pending in higher education, where there is a growing demand to promote understanding and the development of comprehensive knowledge skills. In this regard, UNESCO (2015) has emphasized that the development of CT is crucial for the formation of responsible individuals committed to society.

Understanding the impact of desires on motivation and the activation of intelligence requires the application of pedagogical strategies that cultivate emotional engagement in learning and intrinsically enhance student motivation, such as inquiry-based learning, which is related to real-world challenges and aligned with students' personal interests (Mayol & Gamo, 2023). Moreover, it is essential to assess and improve teacher training while facilitating collaboration in the student’s learning process, recognizing that inheritance is not a decisive factor, in contrast to the significant effect of the environment on the learner (Mora, 2017).

An effective teaching method is Problem-Based Learning (PBL), which enables learners to assess and solve diverse problems, thereby achieving specific educational objectives. This process is carried out under the guidance and support of the teacher. To accomplish this, students are expected to evaluate their learning needs, recognize the advantages of teamwork, and refine their strategies for researching, summarizing, and analyzing information. According to Tarazona (2005), PBL is a fundamental socio-educational strategy for generating solutions to real-world problems and fostering debates that critically evaluate various alternatives.

From a more scientific perspective on PBL, Román (2021) notes that neuroeducation has consistently identified certain anatomical nuclei in the cerebral cortex that function as key centers for neuronal integration and communication, playing a crucial role in various neurocognitive tasks. Furthermore, he highlights the central role of the prefrontal lobe, which acts as a primary hub in coordinating brain information during learning processes, integrating sensory stimuli, attentional mechanisms, memory systems, executive functions, emotional components, and aspects of social cognition.

For his part, Facione (2007) states that CT represents the cognitive mechanism through which individuals face challenges and assume argumentative positions in response to complex situations within the sociocultural context. Therefore, fostering a critical mindset in students is essential for developing such thinking skills. Consequently, teachers must adopt a transformative role within the educational framework, as well as redefine the responsibilities of both students and educators to promote the development of these competencies. In this regard, it is also important to emphasize the statement made by the Ministry of Education (Minedu, 2014), which asserts that the educator plays a vital role in fostering CT among students.
In this context, Peruvian educational institutions face significant challenges related to the implementation of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and the development of Critical Thinking (CT) among students, who tend to focus on gathering information and memorizing it, without recognizing that the advancement of knowledge requires the urgent improvement of information skills through deliberate academic initiatives, along with the various techniques and methods used by educators to facilitate meaningful learning in the classroom.

Previous studies indicate that, in Peruvian public universities, the situation faced by students is concerning due to the limited opportunities for the development of skills related to the implementation of active methodologies, problem-solving, and the development of CT. Although PBL has proven effective in stimulating CT, argumentation, decision-making, and comprehensive development, its implementation and application in the Peruvian educational context have been sporadic and insufficient on the part of teaching and administrative staff (Zamudio Ramírez, 2024; Ramos Rojas, 2022). As a result, a methodological gap has emerged, evidenced by the poor level of development of critical and formal thinking skills among students, especially in theoretical subjects where the traditional transmission of knowledge still prevails. This reveals a concerning lack of systematization in its implementation, which creates a gap that limits the general and comprehensive development of students (Duran-Llaro, 2023; Solano Rodas, 2021; Laguna Estrada, 2022).

This research aimed to determine: What is the relationship between PBL and CT in university students of History and Psychology at a public Peruvian university?

The research follows a quantitative, non-experimental approach focused on data collection in order to evaluate hypotheses through numerical measurement and corresponding statistical analysis, with the main objective of identifying behavioral patterns and thereby testing ideas (Hernández et al., 2014). Likewise, it presents a correlational scope, which aimed to quantify the association between variables without establishing causality (Ríos, 2017).

The population consisted of a total of 70 university students enrolled in the third academic cycle of the professional schools of History and Psychology at a public Peruvian university.

The method employed was a survey, which allowed for the collection of data from young university students studying History and Psychology. Regarding the instrument, a questionnaire composed of 30 items was used; 15 for each variable (PBL and CT). These instruments were adapted from the research work of Landeo Huaman (2023). The instrument underwent content validation by experts and demonstrated its effectiveness based on the reliability assessment related to PBL, yielding a Cronbach's alpha value of 0.936 and 0.951 for CT, indicating a high level of statistical reliability.

To process and then analyze the data, Microsoft Excel and subsequently SPSS v28 software were used. Descriptive statistics were extracted to evaluate the findings related to the variables and dimensions, which were illustrated through tables and charts. Subsequently, the normality of the data was assessed, and the hypotheses were tested using the Spearman's Rho statistical method.

Table 1.
Variable 1: ABP

	Levels	Frequency	%
ABP	Low	0	0,0
	Moderate	32	45,7
	High	38	54,3
	Total	70	100

Table 1 highlights that more than half of the participants (54.3%) reached a high level, while 45.7% reached a fair level. This distribution revealed a positive trend toward the application of the PBL approach within the evaluated group, emphasizing the predominance of skill development associated with this active methodology.

Table 2.
PBL Dimensions

Levels	Planning		Learning Ability		Teamwork
	fi	%	fi	%	fi	%
Low	1	1,4	1	1,4	3	4,3
Regular	31	44,3	31	44,3	29	41,4
High	38	54,3	38	54,3	38	54,3
Total	70	100	70	100	70	100

Table 2 shows that, in the three categories analyzed, the majority of participants were at the high level, with 54.3% in each. A considerable percentage—44.3%—fell into the regular level for both the planning and learning ability dimensions, while in the teamwork dimension, 41.4% were classified at the regular level. Low levels were minimal across all dimensions, with only 1.4% in planning and learning ability, and 4.3% in teamwork.

Table 3.
Variable 2: Critical Thinking (CT)

	Levels	Frequency	%
CT	Low	2	2,9
	Moderate	27	38,6
	High	41	58,6
	Total	70	100

The results corresponding to Table 3 showed that a significant majority of participants (58.6%) reached a high level, while 38.6% were at a moderate level. Only 2.9% demonstrated a low level.

Table 4.
Dimensions del PC

Levels	Dimensions
	Analysis of Information		Inference of Implications		Argumentation of Positionn
	fi	%	fi	%	fi	%
Low	3	4,3	3	4,3	4	5,7
Medium	30	42,9	23	32,9	31	44,3
High	37	52,9	44	62,9	35	50,0
Total	70	100	70	100	70	100

Table 4 shows that in the “inference of implications” dimension, 62.9% of participants reached a high level, followed by “information analysis” at 52.9%, and “position argumentation” at 50%. Medium levels ranged from 32.9% to 44.3%, depending on the dimension, being most frequent in the ability to argue a position. Low levels were minimally represented, with percentages ranging between 4.3% and 5.7%.

Table 5.
Correlation: PBL and CT

			ABP	PC
Spearman Correlation	ABP	Correlation Coefficient	1	0,803**
		Sig. (2-tailed)	-	0,000
		N	70	70
	PC	Coef. de Correlación	0,803**	1
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0,000	-
		N	70	70
** Significant correlation at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

In Table 5, the Spearman correlation analysis revealed a positive and significant association between PBL and CT, with a correlation coefficient of 0.803 and a two-tailed significance value of 0.000. This correlation, statistically significant at the 0.01 level, indicated that as the use of the PBL approach was strengthened, the skills related to critical thinking among the participants also increased. The magnitude of the coefficient evidenced a strong relationship between both variables, suggesting that the implementation of PBL could be closely related to the development of higher cognitive processes such as analysis, inference, and argumentation.

Table 6.
Correlation: PBL and Information Analysis

			ABP	Information Analysis
Spearman Correlation	PBL	Correlation Coefficient	1	0,823**
		Sig. (2-tailed)	-	0,000
		N	70	70
	Information Analysis	Correlation Coefficient	0,823**	1
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0,000	-
		N	70	70
** Significant correlation at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

In Table 6, the Spearman correlation analysis between PBL and the “Information Analysis” dimension of critical thinking showed a very strong positive relationship, with a correlation coefficient of 0.823 and a two-tailed significance value of 0.000. This association was statistically significant at the 0.01 level, indicating that a greater mastery of the PBL approach was closely related to a better ability to critically analyze information. These results supported the influence of PBL on the development of essential cognitive skills for the interpretation and evaluation of data in educational contexts.

Table 7.
Correlation: PBL and Inference of Implications

			PBL	Inference of Implications
Spearman's Correlation	PBL	Correlation Coefficient	1	0,761**
		Sig.(2-tailed)	---	0,000
		N	70	70
	Inference of Implications	Correlation Coefficient	0,761**	1
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0,000	---
		N	70	70
** Significant correlation at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

In Table 7, the Spearman correlation analysis between PBL and the dimension Inference of Implications showed a strong positive relationship, with a correlation coefficient of 0.761 and a two-tailed significance value of 0.000. This correlation was statistically significant at the 0.01 level, indicating that greater mastery of the PBL approach was associated with an improved ability to establish logical consequences based on analyzed information. These results confirmed the close link between the active PBL methodology and the development of inferential thinking in the participants.

Table 8.
Correlation: PBL and Position Argumentation

			ABP	Position Argumentation
Spearman Correlation	PBL	Correlation Coefficient	1	0,675**
		Sig. (2-tailed)	-	0,000
		N	70	70
	Position Argumentation	Correlation Coefficient	0,675**	1
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0,000	-
		N	70	70
** Significant correlation at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

In Table 8, the Spearman correlation analysis between PBL and the Position Argumentation dimension showed a significant positive relationship, with a correlation coefficient of 0.675 and a two-tailed significance value of 0.000. This correlation was statistically significant at the 0.01 level, indicating that the use of PBL was considerably associated with a greater ability of students to critically and structurally support and justify their positions. Although the strength of the association was lower compared to other dimensions of critical thinking, the results revealed a relevant connection between the active methodology and the strengthening of argumentative skills.

The findings of this research reveal a considerable positive correlation between the variables of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Critical Thinking (CT), with a Spearman's Rho coefficient of 0.803 (p = 0.000). This result confirms that a higher level of mastery of the PBL approach leads to an increase in CT among the participants. The statistical significance of this relationship is consistent with previous international studies, such as that of Darmawati & Mustadi (2023), who identified a significant positive relationship between PBL and CT (p-value = 0.004), and that of Afzal and Kousar (2021), who reported a significant value of 0.000 using the Chi-square statistic to measure this relationship. At the national level, Flores Huanca (2023) also found a significant correlation (though low and negative) between these variables (ρ = -0.326; p = 0.033), while Palomino (2023) demonstrated a significant improvement in CT among students after the application of PBL, comparing pretest (2.51) and posttest (3.91) results.

These empirical results are also supported by solid theoretical frameworks. Tueros-Way (2010) emphasizes that university students should develop CT skills as an essential competency for their academic and professional training. In parallel, Tarazona (2005) argues that PBL stimulates prior knowledge and facilitates critical debate by presenting real-world problems that require structured analysis and reflection.

The first relevant finding is the strong correlation between PBL and information analysis (ρ = 0.823; p = 0.000). This suggests that active engagement with problems enhances students' ability to deconstruct and critically examine data. This result is consistent with the study by Vivanco Torvisco (2019), who found a significant and direct correlation between PBL and analytical skills (r = 0.64; p = 0.000). Likewise, Romaní Pillpe (2021) demonstrated the significant effect of PBL on CT using the Wilcoxon test (z = -5.01; p = 0.000). Conceptually, Parra Martínez (2013) asserts that information analysis is a key dimension of CT, as it allows for logical reasoning, the evaluation of opposing views, and the support of sound arguments.

Additionally, a strong correlation was observed between PBL and inference of implications (ρ = 0.761; p = 0.000). This link suggests that working with problem scenarios enhances students’ ability to deduce logical consequences and anticipate outcomes. This finding aligns with that reported by Landeo Huaman (2023), who found a very strong correlation between both variables (ρ = 0.852; p = 0.000). Moreover, Paul & Elder (2003) highlight that this dimension of critical thinking involves deduction, the formulation of alternatives, and evidence-based decision-making—skills clearly fostered by the PBL methodology.

Finally, a moderate positive correlation was found between PBL and argumentation of a position (ρ = 0.675; p = 0.000), indicating that this skill, while related, may be less developed compared to other dimensions of critical thinking. Empirically, Chinchay Hijuela De Quintana (2022) reported significant improvements in this dimension after applying PBL in an experimental group (pretest: p = 0.203; posttest: p = 0.001), supporting these results. From a theoretical perspective, Córdova et al. (2016) emphasize that argumentation goes beyond the simple expression of opinions, as it involves rigorous analysis of the underlying reasons and the context in which they are applied.

Taken together, these findings support the conclusion that PBL represents an effective teaching strategy for promoting critical thinking in university students, strengthening not only their analytical capacity but also their ability to infer consequences and argue in a well-founded manner. Given that the three dimensions of CT evaluated are significantly correlated with PBL, it is recommended to systematically integrate this methodological approach into the pedagogical practices of Peruvian higher education, as a pathway to forming critical, reflective, and socially committed professionals.

The study showed that PBL was significantly related to the development of CT in the participating students (ρ = 0.803; p = 0.000). This relationship was not only statistically significant, but also allowed reflection on the pedagogical value of active methodologies in educational contexts where traditional teaching still predominates. As the use of PBL increased, students demonstrated greater ability to analyze information, infer consequences, and argue more convincingly. This suggests that developing CT is not a routine educational process, but a complex competency that requires the use of educational strategies tailored to the needs of the learner. Likewise, the findings of this study call for a reconsideration of the teacher’s role as a facilitator of meaningful learning experiences, and also highlight the need to rethink the university curriculum in order to promote spaces for reflection and critical judgment as cornerstones of a comprehensive professional education for students.

Declaration on the Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI):
AI was used solely for grammar correction (in both Spanish and English) and for refining the writing style of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Authors’ Contributions:
Zamudio Ramirez, J. E.: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Chávez Campó, S. M.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Sánchez Campos, L. A.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing